izindaba

Mhlawumbe ngemva komthetho ka-Ohm, umthetho wesibili odume kakhulu kweze-elekthronikhi umthetho kaMoore: Inani lama-transistors angenziwa kumjikelezo ohlanganisiwe aphindwe kabili njalo eminyakeni emibili noma ngaphezulu.Njengoba ubukhulu be-chip buhlala bufana, lokhu kusho ukuthi ama-transistors angawodwana azoba mancane ngokuhamba kwesikhathi.Sesiqalile ukulindela isizukulwane esisha sama-chips anesici esincanyana ukuthi avele ngesivinini esijwayelekile, kodwa siyini iphuzu lokwenza izinto zibe zincane?Ingabe ezincane zihlala zisho kangcono?
Ngekhulu leminyaka elidlule, ubunjiniyela be-elekthronikhi buye benza inqubekelaphambili enkulu kakhulu. Ngeminyaka yawo-1920s, imisakazo ye-AM ethuthuke kakhulu yayinamashubhu evacuum ambalwa, ama-inductors amakhulu amaningana, ama-capacitor nama-resistors, inqwaba yamamitha ezintambo ezisetshenziswa njengezimpondo, kanye nesethi enkulu yamabhethri. ukunika amandla yonke idivayisi.Namuhla, ungakwazi Lalela izinsiza zokusakaza umculo ezingaphezu kweshumi nambili kudivayisi ephaketheni lakho, futhi ungenza okwengeziwe.Kodwa ukwenza kancane akukhona nje ukuphatheka: kubaluleke kakhulu ukufeza ukusebenza esikulindele emishinini yethu namuhla.
Inzuzo eyodwa esobala yezingxenye ezincane ukuthi zikuvumela ukuthi ufake ukusebenza okwengeziwe ngevolumu efanayo.Lokhu kubaluleke kakhulu kumasekhethi edijithali: izingxenye eziningi zisho ukuthi ungenza ukucubungula okwengeziwe ngesikhathi esifanayo.Ngokwesibonelo, ngombono, inani lolwazi olucutshungulwe yi-64-bit processor liphindwe kasishiyagalombili kune-8-bit CPU esebenza ngewashi elifanayo.Kodwa futhi lidinga izingxenye eziningi eziphindwe kasishiyagalombili: amarejista, ama-add, amabhasi, njll. zonke zinkulu ngokuphindwe kasishiyagalombili. .Ngakho-ke udinga i-chip enkulu ngokuphindwe kasishiyagalombili noma i-transistor encanyana ngokuphindwe kasishiyagalombili.
Kungokufanayo nakuma-memory chips: Ngokwenza ama-transistors amancane, unendawo yokulondoloza eyengeziwe ngevolumu efanayo.Amaphikseli kuzibonisi eziningi namuhla enziwe ngama-transistors efilimu azacile, ngakho kunengqondo ukuwanciphisa futhi uzuze izinqumo eziphakeme. , i-transistor encane, iba ngcono, futhi kunesinye isizathu esibalulekile: ukusebenza kwayo kuba ngcono kakhulu.Kodwa kungani ngempela?
Noma nini lapho wenza i-transistor, izokunikeza ezinye izingxenye ezengeziwe mahhala.Itheminali ngayinye ine-resistor ochungechungeni.Noma iyiphi into ephethe i-current ibuye ibe nokuzi-inductance.Ekugcineni, kukhona amandla phakathi kwanoma yimaphi amakhondatha amabili abhekene.Yonke le mithelela sebenzisa amandla futhi wehlise isivinini se-transistor.Amandla e-Parasitic ayinkinga ikakhulukazi: adinga ukushajwa futhi akhululwe isikhathi ngasinye lapho ama-transistors avuliwe noma avaliwe, okudinga isikhathi kanye namandla kusuka kumandla kagesi.
I-Capacitance phakathi kwama-conductor amabili iwumsebenzi wobukhulu bawo bomzimba: usayizi omncane usho amandla amancane.Futhi ngenxa yokuthi ama-capacitor amancane asho isivinini esiphezulu namandla aphansi, ama-transistors amancane angasebenza ngamafrikhwensi ewashi aphezulu futhi ahlakaze ukushisa okuncane ngokwenza kanjalo.
Njengoba unciphisa usayizi wama-transistors, amandla akuwona kuphela umphumela oguqukayo: kunemiphumela eminingi engavamile ye-quantum mechanical engabonakali kumadivayisi amakhulu.Nokho, ukukhuluma ngokuvamile, ukwenza ama-transistors abe mancane kuzowenza asheshe. kunama-transistors.Uma wehlisa ezinye izingxenye, zisebenza kanjani?
Ngokuvamile, izingxenye ze-passive ezifana nama-resistor, ama-capacitor, nama-inductors ngeke zibe ngcono uma ziba zincane: ngezindlela eziningi, zizoba zimbi kakhulu. , ngaleyo ndlela ilondoloza isikhala se-PCB.
Ubukhulu be-resistor bungancishiswa ngaphandle kokubangela ukulahlekelwa okukhulu.Ukumelana nocezu lwento kunikezwa, lapho u-l ubude, u-A uyindawo ye-cross-sectional, futhi ρ yi-resisivity yempahla.Ungakwazi umane unciphise ubude kanye ne-cross-section, bese ugcina une-resistor encane ngokomzimba, kodwa usenokumelana okufanayo.Ububi kuphela ukuthi lapho ulahla amandla afanayo, ama-resistors amancane ngokomzimba azokhiqiza ukushisa okungaphezu kwama-resistor amakhulu.Ngakho-ke, amancane amancane. ama-resistors angasetshenziswa kuphela kumasekhethi anamandla aphansi.Leli thebula libonisa ukuthi isilinganiso samandla esiphezulu se-SMD resistors sincipha kanjani njengoba usayizi wabo uncipha.
Namuhla, i-resistor encane kakhulu ongayithenga ingusayizi we-metric 03015 (0.3 mm x 0.15 mm).Amandla azo alinganiselwe angu-20 mW kuphela futhi asetshenziselwa amasekhethi achitha amandla amancane kakhulu futhi anosayizi olinganiselwe kakhulu.I-metric encane 0201 iphakethe (0.2 mm x 0.1 mm) likhishiwe, kodwa alikakafakwa ekukhiqizweni. Kodwa ngisho noma livela kukhathalogi yomkhiqizi, ungalindeli ukuthi libe yonke indawo: amarobhothi amaningi okukhetha nendawo awanembile ngokwanele. ukuzisingatha, ngakho-ke zingase zibe yimikhiqizo ye-niche.
Ama-Capacitor nawo angancishiswa, kodwa lokhu kuzonciphisa amandla awo.Ifomula yokubala i-capacitance ye-shunt capacitor, lapho u-A eyindawo yebhodi, d ibanga phakathi kwawo, futhi u-ε yi-dielectric engaguquki. (impahla yezinto eziphakathi) .Uma i-capacitor (ngokuyisisekelo idivayisi eyisicaba) i-miniaturized, indawo kufanele incishiswe, ngaleyo ndlela inciphise i-capacitance.Uma usafuna ukupakisha i-nafara eningi ngevolumu encane, inketho kuphela ukunqwabelanisa izingqimba eziningana ndawonye.Ngenxa yentuthuko yezinto zokwakha kanye nokukhiqizwa, okuphinde kwenza amafilimu amancane (amancane d) kanye nama-dielectrics akhethekile (ano-ε amakhulu) okungenzeka, ubukhulu bama-capacitor bunciphe kakhulu emashumini ambalwa eminyaka adlule.
I-capacitor encane kunazo zonke etholakalayo namuhla ikuphakheji ye-ultra-small metric 0201: kuphela i-0.25 mm x 0.125 mm. Umthamo wabo ukhawulelwe ku-100 nF esebenzayo, futhi amandla okusebenza aphezulu ngu-6.3 V. Futhi, lawa maphakheji mancane kakhulu futhi zidinga imishini ethuthukisiwe ukuzisingatha, zinciphise ukutholwa kwazo okusabalele.
Kuma-inductors, indaba inobuqili kancane.I-inductance yekhoyili eqondile inikezwa, lapho u-N eyinombolo yokujika, A indawo enqamula ingxenye yekhoyili, l ubude bayo, futhi u-μ izinto ezihlala njalo (permeability).Uma zonke izilinganiso zincishiswa ngesigamu, i-inductance nayo izoncishiswa ngesigamu.Nokho, ukumelana kocingo kuhlala kufana: lokhu kungenxa yokuthi ubude kanye ne-cross-section yocingo kuncishiswa ku- ingxenye yesine yenani layo lasekuqaleni.Lokhu kusho ukuthi ugcina usunokumelana okufanayo kuhhafu we-inductance, ngakho-ke unciphisa ingxenye yekhwalithi (Q) yekhoyili.
I-inductor encane etholakalayo etholakalayo kwezohwebo isebenzisa usayizi oyintshi ongu-01005 (0.4 mm x 0.2 mm).Lawa aphakeme njengo-56 nH futhi anokumelana kwama-ohms ambalwa.Ama-Inductors kuphakheji ye-ultra-small metric 0201 akhululwa ngo-2014, kodwa ngokusobala abakaze bethulwe emakethe.
Ukulinganiselwa ngokomzimba kwama-inductors kuye kwaxazululwa ngokusebenzisa into ebizwa ngokuthi i-dynamic inductance, engabonwa kumakhoyili enziwe nge-graphene. ikhoyili ayikwazi ukwenziwa i-miniaturized kahle.Kodwa-ke, uma isekethe yakho isebenza kumafrikhwensi aphezulu, lokhu akuyona inkinga.Uma isignali yakho iku-GHz, amakhoyili ambalwa e-nH ngokuvamile anele.
Lokhu kusiletha kwenye into eyenziwe yaba mincane ekhulwini leminyaka elidlule kodwa ungase ungaqapheli ngokushesha: ubude begagasi esibusebenzisela ukuxhumana.Ukusakazwa komsakazo kwasekuqaleni kwakusebenzisa imvamisa yegagasi eliphakathi ne-AM cishe engu-1 MHz enobude obungamamitha angaba ngu-300. Ibhendi yefrikhwensi ye-FM egxile ku-100 MHz noma amamitha angu-3 yaduma ngeminyaka yawo-1960, futhi namuhla sisebenzisa kakhulu ukuxhumana kwe-4G cishe no-1 noma 2 GHz (cishe ama-20 cm).Amafrikhwensi aphezulu asho umthamo wokudlulisa ulwazi olwengeziwe.Kungenxa ye-miniaturization eyenza sibe nemisakazo eshibhile, ethembekile futhi ewonga amandla asebenza kulawa maza.
Amaza amaza anciphayo angakwazi ukushwabana izimpondo ngenxa yokuthi usayizi wazo uhlobene ngokuqondile nemvamisa ezidinga ukuyidlulisa noma ukuyithola.Omakhalekhukhwini banamuhla abadingi izimpondo ezinde eziphumela ngaphandle, ngenxa yokuxhumana kwabo okuzinikele kumafrikhwensi e-GHz, okuthi uthi oludingayo lube cishe olulodwa kuphela. Isentimitha ubude.Kungakho omakhalekhukhwini abaningi abasaqukethe izamukeli ze-FM bedinga ukuthi uxhume izindlebe ngaphambi kokusetshenziswa: umsakazo udinga ukusebenzisa intambo yesikhala se-earphone njengothi ukuze uthole amandla esiginali anele kulawo maza amade ayimitha elilodwa.
Ngokuqondene namasekhethi axhunywe kuma-antenna ethu amancane, uma emancane, empeleni aba lula ukuzenza.Lokhu akubangelwa nje kuphela ukuthi ama-transistors aseshesha, kodwa futhi ngenxa yokuthi imiphumela yolayini wokudlulisela ayiseyona inkinga.Ngamafuphi, uma ubude yocingo idlula ingxenye eyodwa kweshumi yobude begagasi, udinga ukucabangela ukushintshwa kwesigaba ngobude bayo lapho uklama isekethe.Ku-2.4 GHz, lokhu kusho ukuthi isentimitha elilodwa kuphela locingo elithinte isekethe yakho;uma uthengisa izingxenye ezihlukene ndawonye, ​​​​kubuhlungu bekhanda, kodwa uma ubeka isifunda ngamamilimitha ayisikwele ambalwa, akuyona inkinga.
Ukubikezela ukushabalala koMthetho kaMoore, noma ukukhombisa ukuthi lezi zibikezelo azilungile kaningi, sekuyindikimba ephindaphindayo kubuntatheli besayensi nobuchwepheshe. Iqiniso liwukuthi i-Intel, i-Samsung, ne-TSMC, izimbangi ezintathu eziseqhulwini. yomdlalo, qhubeka nokucindezela izici ezengeziwe nge-micrometer yesikwele ngayinye, futhi uhlele ukwethula izizukulwane ezimbalwa zama-chips athuthukisiwe esikhathini esizayo.Nakuba inqubekelaphambili abayenzile esinyathelweni ngasinye ingase ingabi nkulu njengamashumi amabili eminyaka adlule, ukwenziwa kancane kwama-transistors. iyaqhubeka.
Kodwa-ke, ezicini ezihlukene, kubonakala sengathi sifinyelele umkhawulo wemvelo: ukuzenza zibe zincane akuthuthukisi ukusebenza kwazo, futhi izingxenye ezincane ezitholakalayo njengamanje zincane kunezimo eziningi ezidingekayo.Kubonakala sengathi awukho uMthetho kaMoore wamadivayisi ahlukahlukene kodwa uma kukhona uMthetho kaMoore, singathanda ukubona ukuthi umuntu oyedwa angayiphusha kangakanani inselelo yokudayiswa kwe-SMD.
Bengilokhu ngifuna ukuthatha isithombe se-PTH resistor engangiyisebenzisa ngeminyaka yawo-1970s, bese ngifaka i-SMD resistor, njengoba nje ngishintshanisa phakathi/ngikhipha manje.Umgomo wami uwukwenza abafowethu nodadewethu (akekho kubo imikhiqizo ye-elekthronikhi) lungakanani ushintsho, okuhlanganisa ngakwazi ngisho nokubona izingxenye zomsebenzi wami, (njengoba amehlo ami aya ngokuba mabi kakhulu, izandla zami ziba zimbi Ngokuthuthumela).
Ngiyathanda ukusho ukuthi, ingabe nindawonye noma cha. Ngiyakuzonda ngempela okuthi "thuthukisa, ngcono."Ngezinye izikhathi ukwakheka kwakho kusebenza kahle, kodwa awusakwazi ukuthola izingxenye.Yini isihogo?.Umqondo omuhle umqondo omuhle, futhi kungcono ukuwugcina unjengoba unjalo, kunokuba uwuthuthukise ngaphandle kwesizathu.Gantt
"Iqiniso liwukuthi izinkampani ezintathu ze-Intel, i-Samsung ne-TSMC zisaqhudelana phambili kulo mdlalo, zilokhu zicindezela izici eziningi nge-micrometer ngayinye yesikwele,"
Izingxenye ze-elekthronikhi zinkulu futhi ziyabiza.Ngo-1971, umndeni ovamile wawunemisakazo embalwa kuphela, isitiriyo kanye ne-TV.Ngo-1976, amakhompyutha, izibali, amawashi edijithali namawashi kwase kuphumile, okwakumancane futhi kungabizi kubathengi.
Enye i-miniaturization ivela ku-design.Ama-amplifiers okusebenza avumela ukusetshenziswa kwama-gyrator, angashintsha ama-inductors amakhulu kwezinye izimo.Izihlungi ezisebenzayo nazo ziqeda ama-inductors.
Izingxenye ezinkulu zithuthukisa ezinye izinto: ukuncishiswa kwesekhethi, okungukuthi, ukuzama ukusebenzisa izingxenye ezimbalwa kakhulu ukwenza umjikelezo usebenze.Namuhla, asinandaba kangako.Udinga okuthile ukuze uhlehlise isignali?Thatha i-amplifier esebenzayo. Ingabe udinga umshini wombuso?Thatha i-mpu.njll.Izingxenye namuhla zincane ngempela, kodwa empeleni kunezingxenye eziningi ngaphakathi.Ngakho-ke ngokuyisisekelo usayizi wesekethe yakho uyakhuphuka futhi nokusetshenziswa kwamandla kuyenyuka.I-transistor esetshenziselwa ukuguqula isignali isebenzisa amandla amancane ukufeza umsebenzi ofanayo kune-amplifier yokusebenza.Kodwa-ke futhi, i-miniaturization izonakekela ukusetshenziswa kwamandla.Kumane nje ukuthi ukusungulwa kuhambe ngenye indlela.
Uphuthelwe ngempela ezinye zezinzuzo/izizathu ezinkulu zosayizi oncishisiwe: izimuncagazi ezincishisiwe zephakeji kanye nokuphathwa kwamandla okukhulisiwe (okubonakala kungenangqondo).
Ngokombono ongokoqobo, uma usayizi wesici ufinyelela cishe ku-0.25u, uzofinyelela izinga le-GHz, ngaleso sikhathi iphakheji elikhulu le-SOP liqala ukukhiqiza umphumela omkhulu kakhulu*.Izintambo ezibophayo ezinde kanye nalabo abaholayo bazokubulala ekugcineni.
Kuleli qophelo, amaphakheji e-QFN/BGA athuthuke kakhulu ngokuya ngokusebenza.Ngaphezu kwalokho, uma ukhweza iphakheji isicaba ngale ndlela, ugcina usunokusebenza *okubalulekile* okushisayo namaphedi avuliwe.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-Intel, i-Samsung, ne-TSMC izodlala indima ebalulekile, kodwa i-ASML ingase ibaluleke kakhulu kulolu hlu. Yebo, lokhu kungase kungasebenzi ezwini lokwenziwa...
Akukhona nje ukunciphisa izindleko ze-silicon ngokusebenzisa ama-node enqubo yesizukulwane esilandelayo.Ezinye izinto, njengezikhwama.Amaphakheji amancane adinga izinto ezincane kanye ne-wcsp noma ngisho nangaphansi.Amaphakheji amancane, ama-PCB amancane noma amamojula, njll.
Ngivame ukubona imikhiqizo yekhathalogi, lapho okuwukuphela kwesici sokushayela siwukunciphisa izindleko.MHz/usayizi wenkumbulo uyafana, umsebenzi we-SOC nokuhlelwa kwephini kuyafana.Singase sisebenzise ubuchwepheshe obusha ukuze sinciphise ukusetshenziswa kwamandla (imvamisa lokhu akumahhala, kufanele kube nezinzuzo ezithile zokuncintisana amakhasimende azikhathalelayo)
Enye yezinzuzo zezingxenye ezinkulu yi-anti-radiation material.Ama-transistors amancane athinteka kakhulu emiphumeleni yemisebe ye-cosmic, kulesi simo esibalulekile.Isibonelo, emkhathini ngisho nasezindaweni zokuhlola eziphakeme kakhulu.
Angibonanga isizathu esikhulu sokwenyuka kwesivinini.Isivinini sesiginali sicishe sibe ngamayintshi angu-8 nanosecond ngayinye.Ngakho ngokunciphisa nje usayizi, ama-chips asheshayo angenzeka.
Ungase ufune ukuhlola eyakho imathematics ngokubala umehluko ekubambezelekeni kokusabalalisa ngenxa yezinguquko zokupakisha kanye nemijikelezo encishisiwe (1/frequency).Lokho kuwukunciphisa ukubambezeleka/inkathi yamaqeqebana.Uzothola ukuthi ayibonakali njenge isici esiyindilinga.
Into eyodwa engifuna ukuyengeza ukuthi ama-IC amaningi, ikakhulukazi imiklamo emidala kanye nama-analog chips, empeleni awancishisiwe, okungenani ngaphakathi.Ngenxa yokuthuthukiswa kokukhiqizwa okuzenzakalelayo, amaphakheji abe mancane, kodwa lokho kungenxa yokuthi amaphakheji e-DIP ngokuvamile anenqwaba yezinto. isikhala esisele ngaphakathi, hhayi ngenxa yokuthi ama-transistors njll abe mancane.
Ngaphezu kwenkinga yokwenza irobhothi linembe ngokwanele ukuze likwazi ukusingatha izingxenye ezincane ezinhlelweni zokukhetha nendawo esheshayo, enye inkinga iwukushisela izingxenye ezincane ngokuthembekile. Ikakhulukazi uma usadinga izingxenye ezinkulu ngenxa yezidingo zamandla/umthamo. Ukusebenzisa unamathisele okhethekile we-solder, izifanekiso ezikhethekile zesinyathelo solder unamathisela (sebenzisa inani elincane le-solder unama lapho kudingeka khona, kodwa usahlinzeka ngokunamathisela okwanele kwe-solder yezingxenye ezinkulu) waqala ukubiza kakhulu. Izinga lebhodi liyindlela ebizayo futhi engenzeka.Kuleli qophelo, ungase wenze ukuhlanganiswa okwengeziwe ezingeni le-silicon wafer futhi wenze inani lezingxenye ezihlukene libe lula kakhulu.
Uzobona lokhu ocingweni lwakho.Ngabo-1995, ngathenga omakhalekhukhwini bokuqala ekuthengisweni kwegaraji ngamadola ambalwa lilinye.Ama-IC amaningi angena emgodini.I-CPU eyabonakala ne-NE570 compander, i-IC enkulu esebenziseka kabusha.
Ngabe sengigcina ngamafoni aphathwayo abuyekeziwe.Kunezingxenye ezimbalwa kakhulu futhi cishe akukho lutho olujwayelekile.Enomboloni encane yama-IC, akukhona nje ukuminyana okuphezulu, kodwa futhi nomklamo omusha (bheka i-SDR) uyamukelwa, oqeda iningi lama-IC. izingxenye ezihlukene ebezidingeka ngaphambilini.
> (Faka inani elincane lokunamathisela i-solder lapho kudingeka khona, kodwa unikeze unamathisele we-solder owanele wezingxenye ezinkulu)
Sawubona, ngicabange isifanekiso se-"3D/Wave" sokuxazulula le nkinga: sizacile lapho kunezingxenye ezincane kakhulu, futhi sibe sishubile lapho isifunda samandla sikhona.
Namuhla, izingxenye ze-SMT zincane kakhulu, ungasebenzisa izakhi zangempela ezihlukene (hhayi i-74xx nezinye izibi) ukuze udizayine i-CPU yakho futhi uyiphrinte ku-PCB.Fafaza nge-LED, ungayibona isebenza ngesikhathi sangempela.
Phakathi neminyaka edlule, ngiyakwazisa ukuthuthukiswa okusheshayo kwezingxenye eziyinkimbinkimbi nezincane.Zihlinzeka ngenqubekelaphambili enkulu, kodwa ngesikhathi esifanayo zengeza izinga elisha lobunzima enqubweni ephindaphindiwe ye-prototyping.
Ukulungiswa kanye nesivinini sokulingisa samasekhethi e-analogi sishesha kakhulu kunalokho okwenzayo elabhorethri.Njengoba imvamisa yamasekhethi edijithali ikhuphuka, i-PCB iba yingxenye yomhlangano.Isibonelo, imiphumela yolayini wokudlulisela, ukubambezeleka kokusabalalisa.I-Prototyping yanoma yikuphi ukusika- ubuchwepheshe obusemaphethelweni busetshenziswa kangcono ekuqedeni umklamo ngendlela efanele, kunokuba kwenziwe izinguquko elabhorethri.
Ngokuqondene nezinto zokuzilibazisa, ukuhlola.Amabhodi wesiyingi namamojula ayisixazululo sezingxenye ezinciphayo kanye namamojula okuhlola ngaphambilini.
Lokhu kungase kwenze izinto zilahlekelwe “ubumnandi”, kodwa ngicabanga ukuthi ukwenza iphrojekthi yakho isebenze okokuqala kungase kube nenjongo ngenxa yomsebenzi noma izinto zokuzilibazisa.
Bengilokhu ngiguqula amadizayini athile ukusuka ku- through-hole kuya ku-SMD.Yenza imikhiqizo eshibhile, kodwa akujabulisi ukwakha ama-prototypes ngesandla.Iphutha elilodwa elincane: “indawo ehambisanayo” kufanele ifundwe njengokuthi “ipuleti elihambisanayo”.
Cha.Ngemva kokuba uhlelo luphumelele, abavubukuli basazodideka ngalokho abakutholile. Kwazi bani, mhlawumbe ekhulwini lama-23, iPlanetary Alliance izosebenzisa uhlelo olusha...
Angikwazanga ukuvuma okwengeziwe.Ungakanani usayizi we-0603?Yebo, ukugcina u-0603 njengosayizi wombuso kanye “nokushayela” usayizi wemethrikhi 0603 0604 (noma 0602) akunzima kangako, noma ngabe akulungile ngokobuchwepheshe (okungukuthi: usayizi ofanayo wangempela-hhayi ngaleyo ndlela) noma kunjalo.Kuqinile), kodwa okungenani wonke umuntu uzokwazi ukuthi iyiphi ubuchwepheshe okhuluma ngabo (imethrikhi/imperial)!
"Ngokujwayelekile, izakhi zokungenzi lutho ezifana nezimelayo, ama-capacitor, nama-inductors ngeke zibe ngcono uma uzenza zibe zincane."